Brady Collins
The history of vaccination is a long one, with humans attempting to protect each other against deadly diseases for centuries. The first vaccine was demonstrated in 1796 by Dr. Edward Jenner, who is often considered the father of vaccines. He inoculated an 8-year-old boy, James Phipps, with matter from a cowpox sore, and the boy later recovered and became immune to smallpox. This discovery led to the development of more vaccines in the 19th and 20th centuries, targeting diseases such as typhoid fever, bubonic plague, tuberculosis, and yellow fever. In the 21st century, we have seen the development and distribution of vaccines for COVID-19, Ebola, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of the first successful vaccine | May 1796 |
| Name of the first vaccine | Smallpox vaccine |
| Creator of the first vaccine | Dr. Edward Jenner |
| First person to be vaccinated | James Phipps |
| Date of the first COVID-19 vaccine | December 2020 |
| COVID-19 vaccines | Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Janssen/Johnson & Johnson, Spikevax, Comirnaty, Novavax |
| First country to develop a COVID-19 vaccine | China |
| Universal coronavirus vaccine in development | OVX033 (France), PanCov (France), pEVAC-PS (UK), and VBI-2902 (Canada) |
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What You'll Learn
COVID-19 vaccine distribution
The COVID-19 vaccine was first made available to the public in 2020 through emergency authorisations and conditional approvals. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines were the first to receive emergency use authorisation from the FDA. The Janssen/Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine also received emergency use authorisation from the FDA. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, now called Comirnaty, was the first to be approved by the FDA for use in people aged 16 and older, and it has since been approved for younger age groups as well. The Moderna vaccine, called Spikevax, was approved for people aged 18 and older and has also been approved for younger age groups. Other vaccines, such as the Novavax COVID-19 vaccine, have also been authorised for use in certain age groups.
The development of the COVID-19 vaccine was accelerated by existing knowledge of coronaviruses that cause diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). The COVID-19 vaccines are widely credited for reducing the spread, severity, and death caused by COVID-19. However, immunity from the vaccines wanes over time, requiring booster doses to maintain protection. As of August 2024, 13.72 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines have been administered worldwide.
The distribution of COVID-19 vaccines is managed by various organisations, with the CDC playing a primary role in the United States. In Washington state, the local Department of Health coordinates with tribal nations, local governments, community leaders, and other partners to develop and implement vaccination efforts. Vaccine distribution is adjusted based on the number of available doses, and allocation decisions are made when supply is limited. Factors such as prioritisation of high-risk groups, vaccine supply and distribution, logistics, safety, and clinical guidance are considered in allocation decisions.
To ensure equitable access, many countries implemented phased distribution plans that prioritised those at the highest risk of complications, such as the elderly and healthcare workers. Despite these efforts, worldwide vaccine equity has not been achieved, and there is a continued push for the development and use of vaccines suitable for developing countries. The CDC recommends that most adults aged 18 and older receive updated COVID-19 vaccines for 2024-2025 to protect against currently circulating strains, especially those who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or planning a pregnancy.
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Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine
The Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, now marketed as Comirnaty, is based on BioNTech's mRNA technology. BioNTech holds the Marketing Authorization in the United States, the European Union, the UK, and Canada. The US emergency use authorization (EUA) is held jointly with Pfizer in many countries.
The Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine was the first to be approved for national use after undergoing large-scale trials, and the first mRNA vaccine to be authorized for use in humans. The United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) gave the vaccine rapid temporary regulatory approval on 2 December 2020, making it the first Western country to approve a COVID-19 vaccine for national use. The World Health Organization (WHO) also authorized it for emergency use.
Pfizer and BioNTech applied for an EUA in the US on 20 November 2020, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the application on 11 December 2020 for individuals 16 years of age and older. The authorization was expanded to include those 12 through 15 years of age on 10 May 2021. The FDA approval of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine was a significant milestone in the battle against the pandemic, as it met the high standards for safety, effectiveness, and manufacturing quality required by the FDA.
The development of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine was a collaborative effort between Pfizer and BioNTech. BioNTech's expertise in mRNA vaccine development and manufacturing capabilities were crucial, and they collaborated with multiple global pharmaceutical companies. The formal commercial agreement between Pfizer and BioNTech for the COVID-19 vaccine was signed in January 2021, and the companies have continued to work together to develop and improve the vaccine.
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AstraZeneca vaccine
The Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, co-invented by Oxford University and Vaccitech, was first approved for emergency use in the UK on 30 December 2020. The UK was the first country in the world to approve the vaccine. The vaccine was developed by scientists at Oxford University and delivered on a not-for-profit basis by AstraZeneca. The vaccine uses a replication-deficient chimpanzee viral vector based on a weakened version of a common cold virus (adenovirus) that causes infections in chimpanzees and contains the genetic material of the SARS-CoV-2 virus spike protein.
The vaccine has been supplied to more than 170 countries across the world, with two billion doses released in less than 12 months after its first approval. Approximately two-thirds of these have gone to low- and lower-middle-income countries, including more than 175 million doses delivered through the COVAX Facility. The COVAX programme, managed by the WHO and financed by CEPI and GAVI, spent $750 million to secure 300 million doses for distribution to low-income or under-developed countries. The vaccine has also been granted conditional marketing authorisation or emergency use in more than 90 countries and has received Emergency Use Listing from the World Health Organization.
The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine has been pivotal in the fight against COVID-19, saving countless lives and reducing the pressure on healthcare systems. It has been shown to be safe and effective at protecting people from the serious risks of COVID-19, including death, hospitalisation, and severe disease. The vaccine has an efficacy of around 70% against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Two doses of the vaccine are effective at reducing COVID-19 infections and have prevented thousands of hospitalisations and deaths, even against the more infectious Delta variant.
However, there have been some concerns regarding rare but severe adverse effects, particularly an increased risk of blood clots. In March 2021, the Norwegian government temporarily suspended the use of the vaccine, and several other European countries followed suit. The EMA later released updated product information, stating that the risk of blood clots was not statistically higher in the vaccinated population and that COVID-19 itself increased the risk of blood clots. The WHO has also stated that the AstraZeneca vaccine is safe for breastfeeding individuals and does not recommend pregnancy testing prior to vaccination.
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Moderna vaccine
The Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, sold under the brand name Spikevax, was developed by the American company Moderna, the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). In January 2020, Moderna announced the development of an RNA vaccine, mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to SARS-CoV-2.
In September 2020, Moderna published the detailed study plan for the clinical trial. By October 2020, Moderna had enrolled 30,000 participants for its phase III trial. In November 2020, the overall trial results were positive. The Moderna vaccine received emergency use authorization from the FDA in November 2020. In May 2025, a different version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, with the trade name Mnexspike (mRNA-1283), was approved for medical use in the United States.
Spikevax is designed to be administered in two or three 0.5-mL doses, primarily into the deltoid muscle, at an interval of at least 28 days. The vaccine has been authorized for use in humans aged six months, twelve years, or eighteen years and older, depending on the jurisdiction. In August and September 2022, bivalent versions of the vaccine were authorized for use as booster doses in individuals aged 18 or older in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, the European Union, and the United States.
In October/November 2021, Finland, Sweden, Germany, and France recommended that the Moderna vaccine not be used for people under 30 due to concerns about an increased risk of myocarditis in this age group. The 2024-2025 formula of the Moderna vaccine has been authorized for individuals aged 6 months to 11 years.
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Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine
The Janssen COVID-19 vaccine, sold under the brand name Jcovden, is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by Janssen Vaccines in Leiden, Netherlands, and its Belgian parent company Janssen Pharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of the American company Johnson & Johnson. It is a viral vector vaccine based on a human adenovirus that has been modified to contain the gene for making the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19. The body's immune system responds to this spike protein to produce antibodies. The vaccine requires only one dose and does not need to be stored frozen. Clinical trials for the vaccine began in June 2020, with phase III involving around 43,000 people. In January 2021, Janssen announced that 28 days after a completed vaccination, the vaccine was 66% effective in preventing symptomatic COVID-19, with an 85% efficacy rate in preventing severe COVID-19 and 100% efficacy in preventing hospitalisation or death caused by the disease.
In February 2021, Johnson & Johnson announced that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had issued Emergency Use Authorisation (EUA) for its single-dose COVID-19 vaccine, developed by the Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, to prevent COVID-19 in individuals 18 years of age and older. This decision was based on scientific evidence, including data from the Phase 3 ENSEMBLE study, which demonstrated that the vaccine was 85% effective in preventing severe disease and showed protection against COVID-19-related hospitalisation and death, beginning 28 days after vaccination. The company planned to file for a Biologics License Application (BLA) with the FDA later in 2021.
In March 2021, Johnson & Johnson struck deals with Merck & Co, Sanofi, and Aspen Pharmacare to manufacture the Johnson & Johnson vaccine at facilities in the United States, France, and South Africa, respectively. These partnerships aimed to expand the manufacturing capacity of the vaccine and distribute it globally, including through the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) program.
In July 2021, the FDA authorised Emergent to resume production of the Janssen vaccine. However, the US fact sheet for the vaccine was updated the same month to indicate an increased risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome during the 42 days following vaccination. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) listed Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) as a very rare side effect and recommended updating the product information accordingly.
In October 2021, Janssen reported that a single dose of the vaccine provided durable protection against severe disease and hospitalisation for at least six months, even with the emergence of new variants. A booster dose given two months after the primary dose further increased efficacy against symptomatic and severe disease.
In February 2022, Johnson & Johnson announced a temporary suspension of vaccine production but noted that it would likely resume in the future, honouring existing contracts by supplying vaccine doses from its inventory.
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Frequently asked questions
The first successful vaccine was created in 1774 by Benjamin Jesty, and later inoculated by Edward Jenner in 1796. This was a vaccine against smallpox.
The first COVID-19 vaccines were developed and made available to the public in 2020 through emergency authorizations and conditional approvals. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines were granted emergency use authorization in December 2020.
In 2006, the first vaccine for Human Papillomavirus (HPV) was approved for use in infants.
