Logan Reed
Nucleic acid vaccines involve the host synthesis of viral antigens. This type of vaccine uses genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, to stimulate an immune response. They are distinct from traditional vaccines, which typically use weakened or dead pathogens to elicit an immune response. Nucleic acid vaccines are introduced into the host's cells, where the genetic material is translated and used to produce the viral antigens. This process leads to an immune response as the immune system recognizes these proteins as foreign. Live attenuated vaccines also involve host synthesis of viral antigens, where a weakened form of the virus or bacteria triggers an immune response and the synthesis of antigens, creating immunity.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type | Nucleic acid vaccine |
| Other names | Genetic vaccines |
| Mechanism | Direct introduction of genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host cells |
| Viral antigen synthesis | The host's cellular machinery translates the genetic material to produce the antigenic proteins |
| Immune response | The immune system recognizes the antigenic proteins as foreign, leading to an immune response |
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What You'll Learn
Conjugated vaccine
The idea of a conjugate vaccine first appeared in experiments involving rabbits in 1927, when the immune response to the Streptococcus pneumoniae type 3 polysaccharide antigen was increased by combining the polysaccharide antigen with a protein carrier. The first conjugate vaccine used in humans became available in 1987. This was the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate, which protects against meningitis. The vaccine was soon incorporated into the schedule for infant immunization in the United States. The Hib conjugate vaccine is combined with one of several different carrier proteins, such as the diphtheria toxoid or the tetanus toxoid.
The conjugation of the polysaccharide target antigen to the carrier protein also increases the efficiency of the vaccine, as a non-conjugated vaccine against the polysaccharide antigen is not effective in young children. The immune systems of young children are not able to recognize the antigen as the polysaccharide covering disguises it. By combining the bacterial polysaccharide with another antigen, the immune system is able to respond. The most commonly used conjugate vaccine is the Hib conjugate vaccine. Other pathogens that are combined in a conjugate vaccine to increase the immune response are Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis, both of which are conjugated to protein carriers like those used in the Hib conjugate vaccine.
In 2018, the World Health Organization recommended the use of the typhoid conjugate vaccine, which may be more effective and prevents typhoid fever in many children under the age of five. In 2021, Soberana 02, a conjugate COVID-19 vaccine developed in Cuba, was given emergency use authorization in Cuba and Iran.
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Subunit vaccine
Protein subunit vaccines contain pieces (proteins) of a virus. For example, the COVID-19 vaccine contains the spike protein of the virus. The vaccine also contains an adjuvant, an ingredient that helps the immune system respond to the spike protein. Once the immune system knows how to respond to the spike protein, it will be able to respond quickly to the actual virus spike protein and protect against COVID-19.
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Nucleic acid vaccine
However, nucleic acid vaccines delivered by needle-syringe have been associated with inadequate immunogenicity due to inefficient cellular uptake of the DNA. To overcome this, researchers have employed various techniques, including physical, electrical, and chemical delivery methods, as well as molecular and traditional adjuvants, and genetic sequence enhancements.
Recent innovations in gene editing technology have further enhanced the development of nucleic acid vaccines, including DNA and RNA vaccines. These vaccines have advantageous safety profiles, easy construction, and rapid scalable production. The use of polymeric materials as delivery carriers has also greatly promoted nucleic acid vaccines, offering excellent in vivo stability, enhanced biosafety, specific cellular uptake, endolysosomal escape, and promoted antigen expression.
Additionally, precision delivery devices, such as PharmaJet's Tropis® and Stratis®, have been shown to improve the performance of nucleic acid vaccines. These devices provide a wider dispersion pattern of the injectate within tissues and more efficient delivery into cells, resulting in better antibody responses compared to traditional needle-syringe injection methods.
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Attenuated whole-agent vaccine
Vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity against a particular pathogen. There are several types of vaccines, including attenuated whole-agent vaccines, which involve host synthesis of viral antigens.
One example of an attenuated whole-agent vaccine is the Rift Valley fever virus vaccine. This vaccine candidate strain, ΔNSs-ΔNSm-ZH501, is attenuated and cannot be transmitted by mosquitoes. It has been shown to confer protective immunity from the virulent virus challenge and allows for the differential identification of infected and vaccinated animals.
Another example is the Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus vaccine strain TC-83. Mice vaccinated with this attenuated vaccine strain rapidly developed immunity to subcutaneous or airborne challenges with the virulent VEE virus.
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Toxoid vaccine
Toxoids are bacterial toxins that have been rendered non-toxic but can still stimulate the production of antitoxin antibodies. They are created by purifying bacterial toxins and then inactivating them with formaldehyde, resulting in toxoids that are routinely used to make diphtheria and tetanus vaccines.
Diphtheria toxoid, for instance, is derived from a protein secreted by certain strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and has a molecular weight of approximately 63,000 Daltons. Tetanus toxoid, on the other hand, has a molecular weight of 150,000 and can be used to generate strong immunological responses in vivo. Both diphtheria and tetanus toxoids can be used to couple haptens through various chemical reactions.
Toxoids are also used in the production of conjugate vaccines and human antitoxins. Multiple doses of tetanus toxoid, for example, are used to develop highly immune persons for the production of human anti-tetanus immune globulin (TIG), which has replaced horse serum-type tetanus antitoxin in most of the developed world.
In summary, toxoid vaccines are an important tool in disease prevention, providing protection against toxins without causing toxin-induced illness. While they do not offer prolonged immunity, they play a crucial role in generating immune responses and producing antitoxins.
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Frequently asked questions
The type of vaccine that involves host synthesis of viral antigens is the nucleic acid vaccine.
Nucleic acid vaccines, also known as genetic vaccines, involve the direct introduction of genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host's cells. The host's cellular machinery then translates this genetic material to produce the antigenic proteins. The immune system recognizes these proteins as foreign, leading to an immune response.
Nucleic acid vaccines don't rely on pathogens or toxins to stimulate immunity, so they have the potential to be safer and more effective than traditional vaccines. They are also relatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture.
Yes, live attenuated vaccines involve the introduction of a weakened form of a virus or bacteria, triggering an immune response from the host, which then synthesizes viral antigens.
Examples of live attenuated vaccines include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and the varicella (chickenpox) vaccine.
