Madison Clarke
The Sabin vaccine, also known as the oral polio vaccine (OPV), was created by Albert Bruce Sabin in the 1930s and is one of two types of polio vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). The other type is the Salk vaccine, or inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), which is administered via injection. The Sabin vaccine is based on three attenuated poliovirus strains, while the Salk vaccine uses three wild, virulent strains that have been inactivated with formalin. The choice between OPV and IPV depends on various factors, including the level of immunization coverage and the risk of poliovirus importation and transmission in a given country.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type | Oral polio vaccine (OPV) |
| Virus | Attenuated poliovirus |
| Replication | Efficiently replicates in the gut but not in nervous system tissue |
| Immunity | Systemic and intestinal immunity |
| Administration | Easy to administer on a sugar lump to children |
| Safety | Very safe, but can very rarely cause vaccine-associated paralytic polio |
| Production | Economical to produce |
| Countries | Used worldwide in the 1960s |
| Development | Developed by Albert Bruce Sabin |
| Comparison with IPV | Induces better immunity, easier to administer, and is less expensive than IPV |
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What You'll Learn
The Sabin vaccine is an oral polio vaccine (OPV)
The Sabin vaccine is a live attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine, which means that it contains a weakened form of the poliovirus. It is administered by mouth, typically given to children on a sugar lump. The vaccine induces both systemic and intestinal immunity, is easy to administer, and is inexpensive. The Sabin vaccine was adopted in the United States in 1961 and became widely used worldwide in the 1960s.
The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus's internal ribosome entry site, which reduces the ability of the poliovirus to replicate within the host cell. While the Sabin vaccine is very effective, there is a rare risk of the virus mutating back to a more neurovirulent form and causing vaccine-associated paralytic polio. This occurs in approximately 1 out of every 750,000 cases.
Inactivated polio vaccines (IPV) are also available and are produced by using formalin to inactivate three naturally occurring polioviruses. IPV is given by injection and provides protection against all three serotypes of poliovirus. The Sabin-IPV, which uses the attenuated Sabin strains instead of wild-type strains, has been developed to provide additional safety during vaccine production and to reduce biohazard and biosecurity risks.
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It is made from live attenuated poliovirus
The Sabin polio vaccine is made from live attenuated poliovirus. This means that the poliovirus has been weakened but is still alive. This type of vaccine is known as an oral polio vaccine (OPV).
Albert Bruce Sabin is known for developing the oral polio vaccine. Sabin created his vaccine at the Children's Hospital in Cincinnati, where he tested it on thousands of monkeys and chimpanzees, as well as himself, his daughters, and young volunteers from a federal prison in Chillicothe, Ohio. The vaccine was then tested on a larger scale in the Soviet Union in the late 1950s to early 1960s, where millions of children received the Sabin vaccine with very good results.
Sabin's vaccine is made from a live attenuated poliovirus, which means that the virus has been weakened but is still alive. This is different from the Salk vaccine, which uses inactivated (killed) poliovirus. Sabin's vaccine was preferred over the Salk vaccine because it induced both systemic and intestinal immunity, was easier to administer, and was less expensive.
The Sabin vaccine contains three types of poliovirus (types 1, 2, and 3), each with several nucleotide substitutions that attenuate the virus. These substitutions reduce the ability of the poliovirus to replicate within the nervous system tissue and translate its RNA template within the host cell. While the attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates efficiently in the gut (the primary site of infection), it cannot replicate efficiently in the nervous system tissue.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of the OPV vaccine in countries with endemic polio or a high risk of imported cases. The vaccine is given orally, typically on a sugar lump, making it easy to administer to children. However, one rare drawback of OPV is that the Sabin viruses can, in very rare cases, mutate back to a more neurovirulent form and cause vaccine-associated paralytic polio.
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It is more economical to produce and easier to administer than IPV
The oral polio vaccine (OPV), also known as the Sabin vaccine, is more economical to produce and easier to administer than the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). OPV is administered by mouth, making it more accessible and convenient for mass vaccination campaigns, especially for children. Its ease of administration inspired the popular song in the film Mary Poppins, “Just a spoonful of sugar helps the medicine go down in a most delightful way”.
The Sabin vaccine is an attenuated live oral polio vaccine, which means it contains a weakened form of the poliovirus. This vaccine can be easily administered to children on a sugar lump. In contrast, IPV is an inactivated or killed polio vaccine that is injected, requiring trained personnel and sterile equipment. OPV is produced by passing the virus through non-human cells at sub-physiological temperatures, inducing spontaneous mutations in the viral genome. This production method is less complex and costly compared to the formalin inactivation process used for IPV.
The oral administration of OPV induces both systemic and intestinal immunity, providing a dual layer of protection against polio. It also interrupts the chain of transmission, making it a powerful tool to stop polio outbreaks. On the other hand, while IPV protects the individual child, it does not effectively prevent the spread of poliovirus between children. This feature of OPV makes it ideal for achieving herd immunity and eradicating the disease.
The Sabin vaccine was developed by Albert Bruce Sabin at the Children's Hospital in Cincinnati and subsequently tested on monkeys, chimpanzees, himself, his daughters, and young volunteers. During 1959-1961, millions of children received Sabin's vaccine, with 77 million in the Soviet Union alone. These early vaccination campaigns yielded very successful results, contributing to the global effort to eradicate polio.
While OPV is generally more economical and easier to administer than IPV, it is important to note that the World Health Organization (WHO) provides specific recommendations based on the country's context. In countries with high immunization coverage, low risk of importation, and robust healthcare systems, WHO advises a primary series of IPV injections, followed by OPV doses. In contrast, in countries with endemic polio or a high risk of imported cases, OPV is recommended at birth, followed by a combination of OPV and IPV doses.
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The Sabin-IPV is a formalin-inactivated injectable vaccine
The Sabin-IPV is prepared by treating purified, wild-type, neuropathogenic poliovirus strains with formalin for 2-4 weeks. This process inactivates the virus, making it safe for injection. The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus's internal ribosome entry site, which reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell. This means that while the attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, it is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue.
The Sabin-IPV stimulates robust systemic and partial gut immunity in vaccinated individuals. It is given as an injection, usually in the leg or arm depending on the patient's age. In children, it is sometimes given in combination with other vaccines. The WHO recommends that all children be fully vaccinated against polio, and the two types of vaccines, OPV and IPV, have eliminated polio from most of the world. The Sabin-IPV is used exclusively in numerous countries, and its use is an important part of the WHO's polio eradication strategy.
As global eradication of polio progresses, the use of pathogenic strains in vaccine manufacturing presents serious biohazard and biosecurity risks. There is a risk of the virus escaping from manufacturing plants into the environment, which could lead to infection in under-vaccinated populations. For this reason, the WHO has published guidelines for the analysis of inactivated polio vaccines to reduce the risk of releasing a vaccine lot that contains residual infectivity. These guidelines include testing for the presence of replication-competent viruses using susceptible cell monolayers and indicator cells.
The Sabin-IPV vaccine has played a crucial role in the global effort to eradicate polio and protect people, especially children, from the potentially devastating effects of the disease. Its development and implementation have been a significant advancement in public health and medicine.
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The Sabin-IPV is safer for production personnel and the environment
The Sabin-IPV technology addresses biosafety risks associated with its production, making it safer for those involved in the manufacturing process. This is particularly important given the documented accidental releases of the virus from manufacturing plants, which pose a significant threat to the environment and public health. The escape of the virus into the environment could potentially undo decades of eradication efforts if it infects under-vaccinated populations.
The Sabin-IPV is also advantageous due to its reduced immunogenicity compared to MEF-IPV. This means that future Sabin-IPV vaccines may require significantly different virus amounts compared to current IPV vaccines, allowing for more precise dosing and potentially reducing the risk of adverse effects.
Furthermore, the Sabin-IPV is safer as it cannot cause vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV), which is a concern with OPV. The OPV, which uses live Sabin attenuated strains, carries the risk of reverting to pathogenic forms and causing vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) and vaccine-derived polio disease (VDPD) in individuals with incomplete vaccinations or compromised immune systems. The Sabin-IPV, being inactivated, eliminates this risk.
The use of the Sabin-IPV also aligns with the WHO's strategy to transition from regular IPV to Sabin-IPV, reducing the use of neuropathogenic viruses in the manufacturing process and providing a safer alternative to wild-type strains. This shift is crucial in ensuring the safety of production personnel and maintaining the progress made in polio eradication efforts.
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Frequently asked questions
The Sabin polio vaccine is an oral polio vaccine (OPV) created by Albert Bruce Sabin. It is a live attenuated vaccine, meaning it contains a weakened form of the poliovirus.
An inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) is a type of polio vaccine that contains a completely inactivated or killed poliovirus. It is administered via injection.
No, the Sabin polio vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine, meaning it contains a weakened form of the poliovirus. However, there is an inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) that is made with Sabin strains, which is known as Sabin-IPV.
The Sabin polio vaccine is generally safe and effective, but in very rare cases (1 in 750,000), the virus can mutate back to a more neurovirulent form and cause vaccine-associated paralytic polio. Inactivated polio vaccines do not carry this risk and are therefore used exclusively in many countries.
