Chloe Ramirez
Vaccines are designed to train the immune system to recognize and destroy harmful invaders (pathogens) quickly, before they can make you sick. They trigger your primary immune response, prompting your body to look for a B-cell with the right key to match the pathogen. The B-cell then produces antibodies that can grab onto the harmful invader so that your immune system can destroy it. Some vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines, use your own cells to make parts of a virus or bacteria, triggering an immune response against the unique antigens of the pathogen. Cancer vaccines, on the other hand, train T cells to recognize and attack cancer cells, stimulating a powerful and lasting immune response.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Purpose of vaccines | Train the immune system to recognize and destroy harmful invaders |
| How vaccines work | Vaccines trigger the primary immune response. When bacteria, a virus, or another pathogen enters the body, the body's immune system recognizes the threat and finds the right tools to fight it off. |
| B-cells | Each B-cell is unique and fits a pathogen like a lock and key. The B-cell with the right "key" makes antibodies that can grab onto harmful invaders so the immune system can destroy them. |
| T-cells | Cancer vaccines train T-cells to attack tumor cells. |
| mRNA vaccines | Contain instructions for the body to make antigens, triggering an immune response. |
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What You'll Learn
Cancer vaccines and T cells
Vaccines are designed to train the immune system to recognize and destroy harmful invaders (pathogens) quickly, before they can make you sick. They teach the immune system to identify and destroy harmful elements that are already in the body, such as cancer cells.
Cancer vaccines, a form of immunotherapy, train the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells that are already present in the body. Cancer cells often go unnoticed by the immune system, and vaccines can help the immune system identify and destroy them.
MRNA cancer vaccines, for example, are designed to prompt a strong immune system response. In a study by Sayour and colleagues, an mRNA vaccine was used to activate immune responses unrelated to cancer, which then prompted T cells to multiply and kill cancer cells. This approach has shown promising results in normally treatment-resistant tumors when combined with a common immunotherapy drug called a PD-1 inhibitor.
In another study by UCLA Health Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, an experimental vaccine targeting KRAS gene mutations was tested on 25 patients with pancreatic and colorectal cancer. The vaccine was administered through a series of injections to activate an immune response in the lymph nodes. 21 out of 25 patients generated "KRAS-specific T cells," indicating a stronger immune response. The patients with higher T-cell responses showed longer relapse-free survival rates compared to those with lower responses.
These studies demonstrate the potential of cancer vaccines in activating T cells to recognize and destroy cancer cells, highlighting their possible effectiveness in cancer treatment and prevention.
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How vaccines trigger B cells
Vaccines are designed to train the body to fight harmful invaders by triggering an immune response. They work by training the immune system to recognize and destroy harmful invaders (pathogens) quickly, before they can make you sick. When a pathogen enters the body for the first time, the immune system has to recognize the threat and find the right tools to fight it off. This is where B-cells come in.
Each B-cell is unique and fits a pathogen like a lock and key. The B-cell with the right "key" then makes a bunch of antibodies (immune system chemicals) that also have the key to that specific pathogen. These antibodies can then grab onto harmful invaders, allowing the immune system to destroy them. This process is known as the primary immune response.
In the case of COVID-19 vaccines, mRNA is injected into the upper arm muscle or upper thigh. The mRNA enters muscle cells and uses their machinery to produce a harmless piece of the spike protein found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Once the protein piece is made, the mRNA is broken down and removed from the body.
The cells then display the spike protein piece on their surface. The immune system recognizes that the protein does not belong there, triggering it to produce antibodies and activate other immune cells to fight off what it perceives as an infection. This process helps protect against future infection by teaching the immune system how to respond to the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
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Vaccines and immune response
Vaccines are designed to trigger an immune response to prevent infection from viruses and bacteria. They train the body to fight harmful invaders, which are known as pathogens. When a pathogen enters the body for the first time, the immune system must recognise the threat and find the right tools to fight it off. The body first looks for a B-cell, which is unique and fits a pathogen like a lock and key. The B-cell then produces antibodies, which can use the key to grab onto harmful invaders so that the immune system can destroy them.
Vaccines trigger this primary immune response. They can also be used to teach the immune system to recognise and destroy something that is already in the body, such as cancer cells. Cancer vaccines, for example, train the immune system to notice and destroy cancer cells, which often hide from the immune system.
MRNA vaccines, such as the COVID-19 vaccines, are given in the upper arm muscle or upper thigh. The mRNA enters the muscle cells and uses their machinery to produce a harmless piece of the spike protein found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19. Once the protein piece is made, the cells break down the mRNA and remove it from the body. The cells then display the spike protein piece on their surface, triggering the immune system to produce antibodies and activate other immune cells to fight off what it thinks is an infection.
Toxoid vaccines, such as the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines, use a weakened form of the toxin produced by bacteria to trigger an immune response. Nucleic acid vaccines, on the other hand, use DNA or mRNA to instruct the body's cells to make parts of a virus or bacteria. Vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver the pathogen that the vaccine is meant to protect against. Ebola and some COVID-19 vaccines are vector-based.
Research has shown that the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine induces robust CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. These T cells produce cytokines, which recruit other immune cells, including antibody-producing B cells, to fight pathogens.
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The role of antigens
Antigens are unique structures found on the surface of pathogens (disease-causing organisms) that our immune system recognizes as foreign invaders. They are typically proteins or parts of proteins, and they play a crucial role in how vaccines work.
Vaccines are designed to trigger our immune system to produce antibodies, which are proteins that can recognize and neutralize foreign substances. Antigens are the active ingredient in vaccines, and they stimulate various cells in the immune system, including macrophages, T cells, and B cells. When a vaccine is administered, it contains either the antigen itself or the blueprint for our cells to produce the antigen.
In the case of mRNA vaccines, like the ones used for COVID-19, our cells use the mRNA instructions to produce a harmless piece of the spike protein found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This spike protein acts as the antigen. Once the antigen is produced, macrophages ingest and digest it into smaller fragments. These fragments are then carried to the surface of the macrophage by a molecule called MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex).
The displayed antigen fragments are recognized by T cells. This recognition triggers the T cells to stimulate B cells to secrete antibodies specific to the antigen. These antibodies work with the rest of the immune system to destroy the pathogen and stop the disease. Additionally, the body creates antibody-producing memory cells, which remain even after the pathogen is defeated. If the body encounters the same pathogen in the future, these memory cells allow for a faster and more effective antibody response, providing long-lasting protection against the disease.
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mRNA vaccines and B cells
Vaccines work by training the immune system to recognise and destroy harmful invaders (pathogens) quickly, before they can make you sick. When a pathogen enters the body for the first time, the immune system must recognise the threat and find the right tools to fight it off. The body first looks in its "toolbox" for a B-cell. Each B-cell is unique and fits a pathogen like a lock and key. The B-cell with the right "key" then produces antibodies (immune system chemicals) that can use that key to grab onto harmful invaders so that the immune system can destroy them.
MRNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to make part of a pathogen, such as a virus or bacterium. The mRNA from the vaccine enters the muscle cells and uses the cells' machinery to produce a harmless piece of a protein found on the surface of the pathogen. Once the protein piece is made, the cells break down the mRNA and remove it from the body. The cells then display the protein piece on their surface, triggering the immune system to produce antibodies and activate other immune cells to fight off what it thinks is an infection.
In the case of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, the protein piece that is produced is the spike protein, which is found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The immune system recognises the spike protein as foreign and produces antibodies to target it. This process teaches the body how to protect against future infection with the virus.
While mRNA vaccines have been critical in the fight against COVID-19, there has been a recent shift in federal vaccine development priorities. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has announced a wind-down of mRNA vaccine development activities, citing concerns about their effectiveness against upper respiratory infections and a desire to focus on broader vaccine platforms with stronger safety records. This decision has sparked controversy, with some public health experts criticising the cancellation of grants for mRNA vaccine research as a setback in the development of better therapies.
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Frequently asked questions
B cells and T cells are both types of lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that are crucial for immune function. B cells produce antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to foreign substances in the body, such as bacteria and viruses, to target them for destruction by other immune cells. T cells, on the other hand, have a more direct role in attacking infected cells or cancerous cells.
Vaccines contain antigens, which are substances that the body does not usually recognize as its own. B cells have unique receptors on their surface that can bind to these foreign antigens. When a vaccine is administered, B cells that have the right receptor will bind to the antigen and then start to rapidly divide and produce antibodies specific to that antigen. These antibodies will then be able to recognize and target that antigen in the future if it enters the body again.
Vaccines can also trigger T cell responses. After a vaccine is administered, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) will take up the antigen and present it on their surface to T cells in the lymph nodes. The T cells will then become activated and start to divide and attack cells displaying the antigen. In the context of cancer vaccines, T cells are trained to specifically target and kill cancer cells.
